The measures are conceptualized as indicators for four task classes. Arguably these task classes tap different aspects of the working memory system. Within each task class indicators relied on either verbal, numerical, or figural-spatial stimuli and responses, or mixtures of two of these content domains. The selected task classes reflect operationalizations of competing WMC accounts and are frequently used measures for the assessment of WMC. Based on these two criteria, four WMC task classes were identified: (1) Complex Span (Cspan) tasks designed to capture simultaneous storage and processing in conditions of high interference, (2) Updating tasks assessing the accuracy of updating in working memory across a series of steps, (3) Recall N-back (RNb) tasks requiring the evaluation of the identity of each stimulus from a sequence to a preceding stimulus presented with a certain lag N, which also captures the updating of temporary bindings in working memory and (4) Binding tasks developed to test the ability to establish and briefly maintain bindings in working memory (see Figure 2 for a schematic representation of an example task for the four task classes).
Besides these four classes for measuring WMC, three covariates were of relevance in the present study. First, we developed three tests for the assessment of SM, capturing the aptitude to establish new associations in memory. These tasks were designed analogous to the binding tasks, except that list lengths were longer in order to exceed the capacity limits of primary memory and that memory for associations was tested over a much longer retention period filled with other tasks to ensure that recall relies entirely on SM. Second, two popular experimental paradigms—the Simon task and the Eriksen flanker task—were included to measure one aspect of cognitive control, the inhibition of strong but wrong response tendencies. Finally, we administered three tests of fluid intelligence as criterion measures.
Besides these four classes for measuring WMC, three covariates were of relevance in the present study. First, we developed three tests for the assessment of SM, capturing the aptitude to establish new associations in memory. These tasks were designed analogous to the binding tasks, except that list lengths were longer in order to exceed the capacity limits of primary memory and that memory for associations was tested over a much longer retention period filled with other tasks to ensure that recall relies entirely on SM. Second, two popular experimental paradigms—the Simon task and the Eriksen flanker task—were included to measure one aspect of cognitive control, the inhibition of strong but wrong response tendencies. Finally, we administered three tests of fluid intelligence as criterion measures.
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