All subjects underwent headcap and VNS cuff implantations, as previously described [3 (link)–5 , 7 (link), 12 (link)]. Immediately following lesion surgery, a two channel connector was attached with acrylic to four skull screws. An incision and blunt dissection of the neck exposed the left cervical vagus nerve. Stimulation of the left branch of the vagus avoids cardiac complications [4 (link), 5 , 7 (link)]. The nerve was placed inside the cuff (5-6 kΩ impedance), and cuff leads were tunneled subcutaneously and attached to the two-channel connector atop the skull. Rats were provided amoxicillin (5 mg) and carprofen (1 mg) for three days following surgery.