We constructed a sample consisting of patients who underwent 1 of 11 surgical procedures during the sample period: total knee arthroplasty (TKA), total hip arthroplasty (THA), laparoscopic cholecystectomy, open cholecystectomy, laparoscopic appendectomy, open appendectomy, cesarean delivery, FESS, cataract surgery, transurethral prostate resection (TURP), or simple mastectomy. We chose these procedures because they are commonly performed. In addition, with the exception of TKA and THA, these procedures are not indicated to relieve pain and are not thought to place patients at risk for long-term pain. We identified patients who underwent these procedures by identifying inpatient or outpatient claims with a CPT code for the given procedure (eTable 1 in the Supplement). We restricted our analysis to patients aged 18 to 64 years who were continuously enrolled for a period of at least 3 calendar years, encompassing the year before the procedure and the year after. For example, for patients who received their procedure in 2003, we required that the patient be continuously enrolled for at least the time period January 1, 2002, through December 31, 2004. In addition, we excluded patients who underwent 2 or more of the 11 studied surgical procedures. Using data from pharmacy claims, we further restricted our analysis to opioid-naive patients, defined as patients who did not fill a prescription for an opioid in the 12 months prior to their procedure. A flowchart outlining the construction of the sample is provided in the eFigure in the Supplement.