The sol–gel methodology was harnessed to fabricate niobium and nitrogen-co-doped titanium dioxide, denoted as Nb-N-TiO2 nanoparticles [33 (link)]. Following the protocol, a 500 mL glass vessel was utilized to add 20 mL of a 97% titanium tetraisopropoxide (TTIP) solution with 150 mL of 2-propanol [34 (link)]. Subsequently, a gradual addition of 20 mL of TTIP while maintaining continuous agitation for 15 min [35 (link)]. Following this, 6 mL of acetic acid was introduced and stirred for 30 min, culminating in a heated environment until the temperature equilibrated at 70 °C [36 (link)]. Upon achieving this thermal threshold, 6 mL of ethylene glycol was methodically incorporated, and agitation continued without additional heat for 20 min [37 (link)]. A urea solution was methodically introduced to this synthesized solution and underwent stirring for an additional 20 min. Subsequently, the solution harboring the niobium precursor was added and subjected to an extended stirring regimen of 45 min [38 (link)]. It is imperative to emphasize that rigorous agitation was diligently maintained throughout the procedure to ensure homogeneous mixing and proper integration of the components [39 (link)]. The resultant solution, emblematic of meticulous precision, was permitted to undergo a maturation process spanning 20 h. After that, it was subjected to a controlled drying process at 100 °C for 24 h. The subsequent phases of the fabrication process encompassed the comminution of the material, followed by a controlled calcination process at 450 °C for a comprehensive duration of 4 h [39 (link)]. This elevated temperature calcination process effectively removed most organic impurities, resulting in a measurable reduction in the material's overall mass. In a culminating step, the synthesized Nb-N-TiO2 material underwent further functionalization by incorporating ethanolic extracts from M. arvensis [3 (link)].
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