For structural characterization of NulO pathway intermediates, filtered enzymatic reactions (Amicon Ultra-4 centrifugal filter unit with 3000 kDa molecular weight cut-off) or material purified according to previously described methods was exchanged into 100% D2O (Gulati et al. 2015 (link)). Structural analysis was performed using either a Varian Inova 500 MHz (1H) spectrometer with a Varian Z-gradient 3-mm probe or a Varian 600 MHz (1H) spectrometer with a Varian 5 mm Z-gradient probe. All spectra were referenced to an internal acetone standard (δH 2.225 ppm and δC 31.07 ppm).