The cytosol-mitochondria fractionation assay was performed using a Mitochondria/Cytosol Fractionation Kit (Millipore) as previously described46 (link), 47 (link). Briefly, NHLFs were transfected for 30 h with either non-targeting control siRNA or ISG15-specific siRNA and then transfected with EMCV-RNA or RABVLe for 16 h. Cells were homogenized in an isotonic buffer using a Dounce homogenizer and the lysates were centrifuged at 600 ×g to pellet the nuclei and unbroken cells. The supernatant was further centrifuged at 10,000 ×g at 4°C for 30 min to separate the cytosolic (supernatant) and mitochondrial (pellet) fractions. The protein concentration of both fractions was determined by a bicinchoninic acid (BCA) assay (Pierce), and equal amounts of proteins were analyzed by immunoblotting. Anti-α-tubulin and anti-MAVS immunoblotting served as markers for the cytosolic and mitochondrial fractions, respectively.