Comprehensive Membrane Characterization Protocol

Membrane characterization was based on surface morphology, functional group, hydrophilicity and porosity. Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM, Model: VPFESEM, Zeiss Supra55 VP, Feldbach, Switzerland) was used to observe the membrane surface morphology. The sample was coated with gold after being mounted onto a metal substrate. Fibre diameter and pore size were measured by using ImageJ Software (ImageJ 1.53e, Bethesda, MD, USA). Additionally, the functional group presence in the membrane was analysed by using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR, Model: Thermo-Nicolet, Waltham, MA, USA) and compared with result from our previous reports [49 ]. Goniometer was used to measure contact angle via Sessile Drop Method (IFT, Model: OCA 20, Data Physics, Filderstadt, Germany). The contact angles were measured three times by using the build-in software Interfacial Tension (SCA 20, Filderstadt, Germany). Furthermore, porosity was measured by using dry-wet method in which the membrane weight and volume were measured and calculated [50 (link)].