Early victimization. Early victimization was assessed by the Chinese version of the junior version of the Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire [54 (link)]. Six items related to verbal, relational, and physical victimization were used to measure participants’ past victimization experience in primary and secondary schools (e.g., “Some classmates gave me bad names to scold me, or made fun of me and satirized me”). The instruction was set to “Please recall if you had any of the following experiences in primary and secondary school”. Participants rated these items on a four-point scale (1 = never, 4 = always). Average scores of all items were computed, with higher scores indicating higher frequencies of early victimization. In the present study, Cronbach’s α for the questionnaire was 0.84.
Negative cognitive processing bias. The negative cognitive processing bias was measured by the Negative Cognitive Processing Bias Questionnaire developed by Yan et al. [31 (link)]. Participants answered 23 items assessing four dimensions of negative cognitive processing bias: negative attention bias, negative memory bias, negative interpretation bias, and negative rumination bias (e.g., “I vividly remember a time when I was laughed at”). Each item was answered on a four-point scale (1 = not at all true, 4 = completely true). Average scores of all items were computed, with higher scores representing a higher tendency for negative cognitive processing bias. In the present study, Cronbach’s α for the questionnaire was 0.89.
Resilience. Resilience was assessed using the Resilient Trait Scale for Chinese Adults [55 ]. The scale includes 30 items measuring five dimensions of resilience: internal locus of control, problem-focused coping style, optimism, predisposition to accepting and utilizing social supports, and acceptance (e.g., “I can overcome difficulties mainly because of my strong ability”). Participants rated their perceptions of resilience on a four-point scale (1 = not at all true, 4 = completely true). Average scores of all items were computed, with higher scores reflecting higher levels of resilience. In the present study, Cronbach’s α for the questionnaire was 0.91.
Core self-evaluations. Core self-evaluations were measured by the Chinese version of the Core Self-Evaluations Scale (CSES) [56 ,57 (link)]. The CSES consists of 10 items (e.g., “I am confident I can succeed in life”). Each item was rated on a five-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Average scores of all items were computed, with higher scores indicating higher levels of core self-evaluations. In the present study, Cronbach’s α for the questionnaire was 0.86.
Negative cognitive processing bias. The negative cognitive processing bias was measured by the Negative Cognitive Processing Bias Questionnaire developed by Yan et al. [31 (link)]. Participants answered 23 items assessing four dimensions of negative cognitive processing bias: negative attention bias, negative memory bias, negative interpretation bias, and negative rumination bias (e.g., “I vividly remember a time when I was laughed at”). Each item was answered on a four-point scale (1 = not at all true, 4 = completely true). Average scores of all items were computed, with higher scores representing a higher tendency for negative cognitive processing bias. In the present study, Cronbach’s α for the questionnaire was 0.89.
Resilience. Resilience was assessed using the Resilient Trait Scale for Chinese Adults [55 ]. The scale includes 30 items measuring five dimensions of resilience: internal locus of control, problem-focused coping style, optimism, predisposition to accepting and utilizing social supports, and acceptance (e.g., “I can overcome difficulties mainly because of my strong ability”). Participants rated their perceptions of resilience on a four-point scale (1 = not at all true, 4 = completely true). Average scores of all items were computed, with higher scores reflecting higher levels of resilience. In the present study, Cronbach’s α for the questionnaire was 0.91.
Core self-evaluations. Core self-evaluations were measured by the Chinese version of the Core Self-Evaluations Scale (CSES) [56 ,57 (link)]. The CSES consists of 10 items (e.g., “I am confident I can succeed in life”). Each item was rated on a five-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Average scores of all items were computed, with higher scores indicating higher levels of core self-evaluations. In the present study, Cronbach’s α for the questionnaire was 0.86.
Free full text: Click here
