Snap-frozen quadriceps muscle tissues were homogenized in lysis buffer as reported (19 (link)). Cytosolic and mitochondrial proteins were separated. After Western blotting of the samples, protein bands were detected and analyzed using a ChemiDoc MP Imaging System (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA). Voltage-dependent anion channel protein (VDAC) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH, a house keeping gene with relatively stable expression) were used as the loading control for mitochondrial protein and cytosolic protein, respectively. Results were expressed as the integrated optical density (IOD) relative to VDAC or GAPDH. VDAC (1:1000, #4661) and BNIP3 (1:1000, #12396) antibodies were purchased from Cell Signaling Technologies (Danvers, MA). Antibodies for LC3-I/II (1:1000, ab58610), ubiquitin-binding protein p62 (1:1000, ab91526), and cytochrome C (Cyt-C, 1:1000, ab13575) were from Abcam (Cambridge, United Kingdom). ATP5B antibody (1:1000, ARP48185_T100) was from Aviva Systems Biology (San Diego, CA). Mitochondrial transcription factor A (TFAM) (1:100, sc-376672) and nuclear respiratory factor-1 (NRF-1) (1:100, sc-33771) antibodies were from Santa Cruz Biotechnology (CA). PGC-1α antibody (1:2000, NBP1-04676) was from Novus Biological (CO). GAPDH antibody (1:1000, 60004-1-Ig) was from Proteintech (Chicago, IL).