Participants in these analyses are members of the PHS I which is a completed randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial designed to study low-dose aspirin and beta-carotene for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer. Detailed description of the PHS I has been published.32 (link) Of the total 22,071 participants, we excluded 25 men with prevalent HF at baseline, one HF case that occurred after age 100, and 1,145 participants with missing information on lifestyle factors (exercise, body mass index, fruit and vegetable, breakfast cereal consumption, alcohol consumption, and smoking). Thus, a final sample of 20,900 participants was used for current analyses. Each participant signed an informed consent and the Institutional review Board at Brigham and Women’s Hospital approved the study protocol.