The current data were drawn from an ongoing prospective, longitudinal study of females with and without carefully diagnosed childhood ADHD (see Hinshaw, [54 ] for more complete details). This study was approved by the Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects (CPHS) at the University of California, Berkeley. Participants were initially recruited across a metropolitan area from schools, mental health centers, pediatric practices, and through advertisements to participate in research-based, 5-week summer day camps between 1997–1999. Some participants were recruited through the general population whereas others were recruited through the healthcare system. These programs were designed to be enrichment programs featuring classroom and outdoor environments for ecologically valid assessment, rather than intensive therapeutic interventions. All participants and their families underwent a rigorous, multi-step psychodiagnostic assessment process (see below), after which 140 girls with ADHD and 88 age- and ethnicity-matched comparison girls were selected to participate in the childhood program (Wave 1; Mage = 9.6 years, range = 6–12 years).
Following recruitment, all participants were screened for ADHD regardless of if they had already had a pre-established diagnosis. To establish a baseline diagnosis of ADHD, we used the parent-administered Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, 4th ed. (DISC-IV) [55 (link)] and SNAP rating scale [52 (link)], Hinshaw, [54 ] for the diagnostic algorithm). Comparison girls could not meet diagnostic criteria for ADHD on either measure. Some comparison girls met criteria for internalizing disorders (3.4%) or disruptive behavior disorders (6.8%) at baseline, yet our goal was not to match ADHD participants on comorbid conditions but instead to obtain a representative comparison group. Exclusion criteria included intellectual disability, pervasive developmental disorders, psychosis, overt neurological disorder, lack of English spoken at home, and medical problems preventing summer camp participation. The final sample included 228 girls with ADHD-Combined presentation (n = 93) and ADHD-Inattentive presentation (n = 47), plus an age- and ethnicity-matched comparison sample (n = 88). Participants were ethnically diverse (53% White, 27% African American, 11% Latina, 9% Asian American), reflecting the composition of the San Francisco Bay Area in the 1990’s. Family income was slightly higher than the median local household income in the mid-1990s, yet income and educational attainment of families were highly variable, ranging from professional families to those receiving public assistance. On average, parents reported being married and living together (65.8%) at the baseline assessment.
Participants were then assessed 5 (Wave 2; Mage = 14.2 years, range = 11–18; 92% retention [data not included from this wave in the present study]), 10 (Wave 3; Mage = 19.6 years, range = 17–24 years; 95% retention), and 16 (Wave 4; Mage = 25.6 years, range = 21–29 years; 93% retention) years later. Data collection included multi-domain, multi-informant assessments, performed in our clinic for most individuals; when necessary, we performed telephone interviews or home visits. We obtained informed consent from all participants (for initial waves: all legal guardians for minors (if age was below 18 years) and parents; for later waves: all participants and parents). Participants received monetary compensation. For additional information see Hinshaw et al. [31 , 56 ], Owens et al. [57 ].
Following recruitment, all participants were screened for ADHD regardless of if they had already had a pre-established diagnosis. To establish a baseline diagnosis of ADHD, we used the parent-administered Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, 4th ed. (DISC-IV) [55 (link)] and SNAP rating scale [52 (link)], Hinshaw, [54 ] for the diagnostic algorithm). Comparison girls could not meet diagnostic criteria for ADHD on either measure. Some comparison girls met criteria for internalizing disorders (3.4%) or disruptive behavior disorders (6.8%) at baseline, yet our goal was not to match ADHD participants on comorbid conditions but instead to obtain a representative comparison group. Exclusion criteria included intellectual disability, pervasive developmental disorders, psychosis, overt neurological disorder, lack of English spoken at home, and medical problems preventing summer camp participation. The final sample included 228 girls with ADHD-Combined presentation (n = 93) and ADHD-Inattentive presentation (n = 47), plus an age- and ethnicity-matched comparison sample (n = 88). Participants were ethnically diverse (53% White, 27% African American, 11% Latina, 9% Asian American), reflecting the composition of the San Francisco Bay Area in the 1990’s. Family income was slightly higher than the median local household income in the mid-1990s, yet income and educational attainment of families were highly variable, ranging from professional families to those receiving public assistance. On average, parents reported being married and living together (65.8%) at the baseline assessment.
Participants were then assessed 5 (Wave 2; Mage = 14.2 years, range = 11–18; 92% retention [data not included from this wave in the present study]), 10 (Wave 3; Mage = 19.6 years, range = 17–24 years; 95% retention), and 16 (Wave 4; Mage = 25.6 years, range = 21–29 years; 93% retention) years later. Data collection included multi-domain, multi-informant assessments, performed in our clinic for most individuals; when necessary, we performed telephone interviews or home visits. We obtained informed consent from all participants (for initial waves: all legal guardians for minors (if age was below 18 years) and parents; for later waves: all participants and parents). Participants received monetary compensation. For additional information see Hinshaw et al. [31 , 56 ], Owens et al. [57 ].
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