Parmotrema tinctorum (Despr. ex Nyl.) Hale., a radially growing foliose macrolichen, was used as a model lichen species for the following reasons: it is distributed widely in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world [17 (link),18 (link)]; it is loosely attached to the substrate so that the thallus can be peeled off easily and cleanly from the substrate, e.g., bark and rock; mature thallus of P. tinctorum has sufficient biomass for the test. Five individual lichen thalli were collected from the bark of pine trees (Pinus thunbergii Parl.) at five different sites of Jeju Island located at the subtropical zone of the southern part of South Korea. The climate of Jeju Island is affected by Southeast Asian monsoon [19 (link)]. Heavy rainfall derived from the East China Sea and the West Pacific contributes to high levels of humidity in summer. The climate during winter is characterized by cold and dry conditions. The mean annual temperature is around 25.4 and 5.1 °C in summer and winter, respectively [20 (link)]. Five collection sites were the following: site 1 (33°28′31″ N, 126°21′09″ E) is located at a seaside cliff and directly exposed to strong winds from the sea; site 2 (33°30′28″ N, 126°28′01″ E) is a hill near the sea; site 3 (33°32′59″ N, 126°45′26″ E) is located at the top of the rising small defunct volcano which has been used as a graveyard and surrounded by agricultural fields (citrus farms); site 4 (33°14′1″ N, 126°22′59″ E) is located at a small park nearby the sea; and site 5 (33°16′23″ N, 126°42′14″ E) is located along the seaside with densely-developed viridian forest (Figure 1 a).
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