The presence of lymnaeid populations in this endemic area has been assessed by traditional malacological searching and sampling methods [40 (link)–42 ]. Lymnaeid snails were collected in multiple localities of the fascioliasis endemic area of the northern Bolivian Altiplano (Figs. 1, 2).

Northern Bolivian Altiplano human fascioliasis hyperendemic area. a Map showing the location of the lymnaeid vector populations studied. b Magnified map showing northward lymnaeid population spread into the Peñas-Kerani corridor. c Magnified map showing altitudinal lymnaeid population spread into the hill chain between the Tambillo-Huacullani corridor and the Tiwanaku-Guaqui corridor. d Magnified map showing southward lymnaeid population spread up to the Patacamaya zone. Hand-made drawing created using Microsoft® PowerPoint for Mac v. 16.25. Original SM-C. Key: Blue triangles, freshwater habitats presenting lymnaeid populations; red circles, localities where cattle was proved to be infected by the liver fluke in previous studies; green squares, human villages; grey shaded areas, large cities of La Paz and El Alto; brown outline, mountainous areas delimiting flatlands and corridors; green-shaded parts in b, c and d, zones of altitudes suitable for lymnaeid existence in the past; numbers/letters correspond to lymnaeid vector populations studied (see Table 1) inside/outside the past established boundaries of the endemic area [34 (link)]

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