Retinal concentrations in the diatom isolates and field samples were determined by liquid-chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) according to refs. (11 (link), 15 (link)). The LC–MS/MS apparatus consisted of a Thermo Accela™ LC system (refrigerated autosampler and LC pump) coupled to a Thermo TSQ™ Quantum Access™ heated electrospray ionization triple quadrupole mass spectrometer. Further detailed methods for retinal quantification are provided in supplemental information. Retinal-to-C ratios of the diatom isolates were estimated by dividing cellular retinal concentrations by cellular C concentrations, as determined using a Costech 4010 CHNOS elemental combustion system.