Constructs, antibodies, and recombinant proteins derived from earlier studies2 ,18 are fully described in Supplementary Methods. Antibodies to Bat3 and Ubl4A were produced in rabbits immunized with recombinant Bat3 fragment (residues 1-250) or full-length Ubl4A, respectively. TRC35 antibodies were against a synthetic peptide (NH2-CGSPIELD-COOH) conjugated to KLH. In vitro transcription, translation in reticulocyte lysate, sucrose gradient fractionation, chemical crosslinking, and immunoprecipitation was as before2 . RNCs were generated by transcription and translation of PCR products lacking a stop codon and sucrose gradient purified for use in the capture assay. CTAB precipitation of tRNA-associated polypeptides has been described28 .