Habitual dietary intake was assessed at the second pregnancy visit (14-18 weeks) using an interviewer-administered quantitative food-frequency questionnaire (QFFQ). This nationally utilised QFFQ was developed by the South African Medical Research Council (SAMRC) based on analyses of 11 dietary surveys conducted in rural and urban South Africa and includes all foods consumed by at least 3% of the population (21 ). Retrospective data was collected on the frequency and quantity of food and beverage intake during the previous week using food flash cards (high quality photographs of food items) and a combination of household measures, two-dimensional life-size drawings of foods and utensils, and three-dimensional food models as described and validated by Steyn et al (22 (link)). According to the criteria developed by Dennis et al, this QFFQ is a very high quality tool – scoring a total of 13 points (high quality classified as a score of seven or higher) (23 (link)). This QFFQ has been extensively piloted and utilised in this setting and results are published elsewhere (10 ,24 (link),25 (link)). QFFQ data was captured electronically using REDCap electronic data capture tools hosted at The University of the Witwatersrand (26 ).