The “destabilized” ATP aptamer (5′- CTGGGGGAGTATTGCGGAGGAAA-3′) oligonucleotide sequence24 (link) was purified using dual HPLC (Biosearch Technologies, CA) and used as received. Tris-2-carboxyethyl-phosphine (TCEP), ferrocenemethanol (FcMeOH), 6-mercapto-1-hexanol (99%), Trizma (tris) base (2-amino- 2-(hydroxymethyl)-1,3-propanediol, magnesium chloride (MgCl2), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), potassium chloride (KCl), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hydrochloric acid (HCl) sodium chloride (NaCl), adenosine triphosphate (ATP), dopamine hydrochloride (99%) (Alfa Aesar), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), and 10× Tris-EDTA were used as received from Sigma- Aldrich. All solutions were prepared using autoclaved, ultrapure water (18.0 MΩ cm at 25°C) using a Biopak Polisher Millipore ultra purification system (Millipore, Billerica, MA).