After a 24 h mango extract treatment, cells were lyzed in RIPA buffer, a 1% protease and proteinase inhibitor cocktail were added (Pierce/Thermo Scientific, Rockford, IL) and centrifuged [36 (link)]. Mucosal scrapings were homogenized in a buffer (500 mM Tris–HCL, 1M Sucrose, 200 mM EDTA, 100 mM EGTA, 0.4M NaF, 10% Triton X–100, 10 mM Sodium Orthovanadate, and Protease Inhibitor Cocktail) then centrifuged at 15,000g for 10 min at 4°C, and the supernatant was stored at −80°C. Fifty microgram of protein was loaded onto the gel, followed by transfer onto PVDF membrane. Membranes were incubated with primary antibodies against NF-κB, p-NF-κB, COX-2, cleaved caspase-3, PARP-1 (Cell Signaling Technology, Beverly, MA), iNOS (Cayman Chemical, Ann Arbor, MI), PI3K (p85β), HIF-1α (Abcam, Cambridge, MA), and β-actin (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA).