The cellular ATP levels were measured using a firefly luciferase-based ATP assay kit (Beyotime) based on a fluorescence technique (Genmed Scientifics Inc.) as previously described (31 (link)). The JC-1 kit (Beyotime) was applied to assess changes in the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm). The mPTP opening was observed as a rapid dissipation of tetramethylrhodamine ethyl ester (TMRE) fluorescence according to a previous study (28 (link)).