To assess levels in reactive oxygen species (ROS), cells were incubated with the mitochondrial oxygen free radical indicator MitoSOX-red (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA) for 30 min at 37 °C. Slides were then mounted for confocal imaging in an open perfusion microincubator (PDMI-2; Harvard Apparatus) and images were obtained at 561 nm excitation by using a confocal microscope (810; Carl Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany). Optical densitometry quantifications were expressed as fluorescence intensity normalized to areas as previously described74 (link).
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