Approximately 30 mg of frozen tissues were submerged in liquid N2 and pulverized to powder in a SPEX, Inc. 6770 Freezer/Mill. Metabolites were extracted by solvent partitioning in acetonitrile:water:chloroform (2:1.5:1).(17 (link)) The upper polar metabolite fractions were frozen in several aliquots each and lyophilized overnight. One fraction of the resulting residue was reconstituted in 55 μL of D2O containing 25 nmol DSS-d6 and transferred to disposable 1.7 mm glass NMR tubes (Wilmad). NMR spectra were recorded at 14.1 T, 20° C, on an Agilent DD2 spectrometer, using standardized parameters as described previously.(18 (link)) Ion Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (ICMS) was performed as previously described.(19 (link))