Depression was assessed using the Beck Depression Inventory short version (BDI-II) (29 ). The short form of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-13) is useful for screening and assessing depression in clinical and research conditions. The BDI-13 assesses the symptoms including depressed mood, pessimism, sense of failure, lack of satisfaction, self-guilt, self-hate, self-harm, social withdrawal, distorted body image, indecisiveness, work difficulty, fatigue, and loss of appetite. Abdel-Khalek translated BDI-II and studied the coefficient of alpha among samples of male and female undergraduates recruited from Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Lebanon (n = 100, 80, 100, 100, respectively). Values of Cronbach's alpha were 0.77, 0.82, 0.89, and 0.67, respectively (30 (link)). The total score varies from 0 to 39. We considered the interpretation of the scores as follows: 0–3: no depression, 4–7: mild depression or light depression, 8–15: moderate depression, and 16 and above: severe depression. We recorded the BDI-II score into a dichotomous variable: without depression for the categories no and mild depression and the presence of depression for the categories moderate and severe depression.
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