Chemicals for these experiments, including DMEM, were purchased from Thermo Fisher Scientific (Waltham, MA, USA). The treatment concentrations of geniposide (10~50 µM) were determined according to previous studies [18 (link)]. As in the previous study [20 (link)], baicalein, which is well known for its anti-inflammatory effects, was used as a positive control. Because the activation time of p38 MAPK in cells is due to stimulating factors, LPS and geniposide were administered simultaneously within a few hours.
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