Predictors of Heart Failure Outcomes

The covariates of interest were demographic characteristics (age, sex, smoking status, and body mass index), baseline vital signs (systolic and diastolic blood pressure and heart rate), number of HHFs in the previous year, number of HHFs in the previous 3 years, comorbidities (coronary artery disease, myocardial infarction, hypertension, dyslipidemia, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, dialysis, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, peripheral arterial disease, and liver cirrhosis), medications used during the index admission (angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors [ACEIs] or angiotensin receptor blockers [ARBs], beta blockers, and 11 others), laboratory test results (serum creatinine levels and 15 others), echocardiography results, in-hospital events, and heart failure medications taken within 3 months of discharge (Table 1 and Table 2). The echocardiographic parameters of interest were the LVEF, left ventricular end-diastolic diameter, left ventricular end-systolic diameter, left atrium diameter, and mitral regurgitation severity. The in-hospital covariates during the index admission were hospital stay (in days), intensive care unit (ICU) stay (in days), episodes of shock (use of inotropic agents, intra-aortic balloon pumps, or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation), intubation, episodes of acute coronary syndrome, and percutaneous coronary interventions. The heart failure medications of interest were beta blockers, ivabradine, digoxin, ACEIs/ARBs, angiotensin receptor–neprilysin inhibitors (ARNIs), mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (MRAs), and loop diuretics.