To be included in the research synthesis, an article needed to meet a variety of criteria. Most important, the article had to contain data relating discrimination to a health outcome. Specifically, because the focus of this analysis was the relationship between the actual perception of discrimination and health outcomes, articles needed to contain a measure of discrimination or an unfair treatment score based on the individual’s perception of being discriminated against. Studies that examined group differences in health outcomes without measuring perceived level of discrimination, such as a comparison study of cardiovascular disease rates for Blacks and Whites, were excluded from the analysis. This exclusion extended to studies in which the main determinant of discrimination was assessed by the researcher and not the participant, such as reports of pollution levels, percentage of a certain ethnic group living in segregated area, and differential clinical diagnoses (mental and/or physical) based solely on race or gender of the respondents.
Statistical criteria for inclusion were that each article needed to report sufficient data for us to calculate a correlation coefficient. Correlation coefficients were found in the literature in one of four ways. First, authors could provide an actual correlation coefficient in the article. Authors could also provide standardized betas in a univariate regression model, which are equal to correlation coefficients in this form. Third, authors could provide unadjusted odds ratios that could be converted to a correlation coefficient with the formula suggested by Digby (1983) : (OR3/4 −1)/(OR3/4 + 1), where OR = odds ratio. Finally, authors could provide sufficient data for us to calculate standardized mean differences, which we could convert to correlation coefficients using the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software (Borenstein, Hedges, Higgins, & Roth-stein, 2005 ). For us to calculate a standardized mean difference, articles needed to provide the following: means, standard deviations, and sample sizes for both high-discrimination and low-discrimination groups; means for each group, along with a total sample size and paired-groups t value; means and sample sizes for the high-discrimination and low-discrimination groups, along with an independent-groups t value; or the standardized mean difference itself, along with the lower limit, upper limit, confidence level, and effect direction. All effects used within the meta-analytic portion of this review are zero-order.
Articles that met all other criteria but did not provide sufficient data for us to calculate a zero-order correlation coefficient were included in the review portion of this research only. A total of 78 articles did not contain appropriate data or did not present sufficient data for meta-analysis.
Statistical criteria for inclusion were that each article needed to report sufficient data for us to calculate a correlation coefficient. Correlation coefficients were found in the literature in one of four ways. First, authors could provide an actual correlation coefficient in the article. Authors could also provide standardized betas in a univariate regression model, which are equal to correlation coefficients in this form. Third, authors could provide unadjusted odds ratios that could be converted to a correlation coefficient with the formula suggested by Digby (1983) : (OR3/4 −1)/(OR3/4 + 1), where OR = odds ratio. Finally, authors could provide sufficient data for us to calculate standardized mean differences, which we could convert to correlation coefficients using the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software (Borenstein, Hedges, Higgins, & Roth-stein, 2005 ). For us to calculate a standardized mean difference, articles needed to provide the following: means, standard deviations, and sample sizes for both high-discrimination and low-discrimination groups; means for each group, along with a total sample size and paired-groups t value; means and sample sizes for the high-discrimination and low-discrimination groups, along with an independent-groups t value; or the standardized mean difference itself, along with the lower limit, upper limit, confidence level, and effect direction. All effects used within the meta-analytic portion of this review are zero-order.
Articles that met all other criteria but did not provide sufficient data for us to calculate a zero-order correlation coefficient were included in the review portion of this research only. A total of 78 articles did not contain appropriate data or did not present sufficient data for meta-analysis.
