All experiments were reviewed and approved by the University of Rochester’s University Committee on Animal Resources, performed in an PHS Assured and AAALAC, Int. accredited facility, and the study is compliant with all relevant ethical regulations regarding animal research. Mice of the following strains C57BL/6J (Jackson Labs, Bar Harbor, ME, USA; stock number 664); Rpl22tm1.1Psam on a C57BL/6J background (Jackson Labs; stock number 011029)17 (link); Mov10l1tm1.1Jw on a mixed 129X1/SvJ × C57BL/6J background21 (link); Tg(Neurog3-cre)C1Able/J on a B6.FVB(Cg) background (Jackson Labs; stock number 006333)50 (link); and Tg(Ddx4-cre)1Dcas on a 129X1/SvJ background (Jackson Labs; stock number 006954) were genotyped as described51 (link). Comparisons of compound mutants and controls involving Mov10l1 mutation or a RiboTag allele were performed using male siblings from individual litters at adult stage. Male Plndc1mut mice on a C57BL/6J background10 (link) and Tdrd5tm1a mice on a C57BL/6J background32 (link) at adult stage were raised at Michigan State University according to NIH guidelines for animal care. Testes from adult green lizards (Carolina Biological Supply Company, Burlington, NC, USA) were used for Ribo-seq. Araucana strain testes from one-year old roosters were used for polysome gradients.