The theoretical basis for the APS is Czesław Czapów’s concept of attitude [30 ]. A Polish scholar indicated the role of the emotional component in explaining antisocial behavior and focused on two elements: cognitive beliefs and emotional preferences. These components are related to behavior [30 ,54 ,56 ]. The APS consists of emotional preferences. The antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) criteria of the alternative model showed in the “Emerging Measures and Models” chapter of the DSM–5 manual, section III; [57 ] were taken into account in the development of the new instrument. Criterion A of the DSM–5 alternative model refers to impairment in self and interpersonal functioning (e.g., egocentricity and absence of internal prosocial standards and failure to conform to lawful behavior; lack of concern for others, lack of remorse, exploitativeness, use of deceit, coercion, dominance, and intimidation to fulfill interpersonal needs [57 ]. Criterion B for personality pathology refers to the presence of maladaptive personality traits, namely: manipulativeness, deceitfulness, callousness, and hostility (the antagonism) combined with irresponsibility, impulsivity, and risk-taking (the disinhibition) [57 ,58 (link)].
Based on the ASPD criteria, seven dimensions of antisocial preferences were extracted and discussed by a panel of 11 experts (specialists in the field of social rehabilitation). In the first stage of the construction of the measure, 140 items were extracted, each of them rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). The procedure proposed by Lawshe was used to assess the content validity of the new measure [59 (link)]. The initial item pool was reduced to 35 items (five per dimension). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the dimensions of APS are: (1) Aggressiveness = 0.81, (2) Lack of Guilt or Remorse = 0.76, (3) Breaking Legal Norms = 0.79, (4) Incapacity for Mutually Intimate Relationships = 0.82, (5) Impulsiveness = 0.79, (6) Risk Taking = 0.74, and (7) Egocentrism = 0.79. Moreover, McDonald’s omega coefficients for the subscales are very similar: 0.81 for Aggressiveness, 0.77 for Lack of Guilt or Remorse, 0.79 for Breaking Legal Norms, 0.81 for Incapacity for Mutually Intimate Relationships, 0.80 for Impulsiveness, 0.74 for Risk Taking, and 0.80 for Egocentrism. The Antisocial Preferences Scale had good internal reliability.
I predicted that the APS factors should correlate significantly with external variables: aggression [60 (link)], impulsiveness [61 (link)], and manipulativeness [62 (link)]. To test the correlations between the APS dimensions and the external variables listed above, three measures were used: the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ) measuring aggression, the Mach-IV measuring Machiavellianism, and the IVE Questionnaire.
Aggression. To measure aggression, the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ) was administered. The questionnaire consists of 29 items and measures four factors: physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, and hostility. Its items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = extremely uncharacteristic, 2 = somewhat uncharacteristic, 3 = neither uncharacteristic nor characteristic, 4 = somewhat characteristic, 5 = extremely characteristic). Cronbach’s α coefficient for the whole scale was 0.80; as far as the subscales are concerned, it ranged from 0.77 for Hostility to 0.85 for Physical Aggression [63 ].
Machiavellianism. To measure Machiavellianism, the Mach-IV was used. The questionnaire measures three dimensions: (1) interpersonal tactics, (2) cynical views of human nature, and (3) utilitarian morality. The instrument consists of 20 self-report items, each of them scored on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strong disagreement to 7 = strong agreement). Cronbach’s α for the whole scale was 0.73 [64 ].
Impulsivity. The IVE Questionnaire was used to measure the personality traits of impulsivity, venturesomeness, and empathy. This instrument consists of 63 items using a yes/no response format. Cronbach’s α coefficients are the following: for Impulsivity, 0.86 for women and 0.76 for men, for Venturesomeness 0.90 for women and 0.85 for men; and for Empathy, 0.77 for both genders [65 ].
Based on the ASPD criteria, seven dimensions of antisocial preferences were extracted and discussed by a panel of 11 experts (specialists in the field of social rehabilitation). In the first stage of the construction of the measure, 140 items were extracted, each of them rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). The procedure proposed by Lawshe was used to assess the content validity of the new measure [59 (link)]. The initial item pool was reduced to 35 items (five per dimension). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the dimensions of APS are: (1) Aggressiveness = 0.81, (2) Lack of Guilt or Remorse = 0.76, (3) Breaking Legal Norms = 0.79, (4) Incapacity for Mutually Intimate Relationships = 0.82, (5) Impulsiveness = 0.79, (6) Risk Taking = 0.74, and (7) Egocentrism = 0.79. Moreover, McDonald’s omega coefficients for the subscales are very similar: 0.81 for Aggressiveness, 0.77 for Lack of Guilt or Remorse, 0.79 for Breaking Legal Norms, 0.81 for Incapacity for Mutually Intimate Relationships, 0.80 for Impulsiveness, 0.74 for Risk Taking, and 0.80 for Egocentrism. The Antisocial Preferences Scale had good internal reliability.
I predicted that the APS factors should correlate significantly with external variables: aggression [60 (link)], impulsiveness [61 (link)], and manipulativeness [62 (link)]. To test the correlations between the APS dimensions and the external variables listed above, three measures were used: the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ) measuring aggression, the Mach-IV measuring Machiavellianism, and the IVE Questionnaire.
Aggression. To measure aggression, the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ) was administered. The questionnaire consists of 29 items and measures four factors: physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, and hostility. Its items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = extremely uncharacteristic, 2 = somewhat uncharacteristic, 3 = neither uncharacteristic nor characteristic, 4 = somewhat characteristic, 5 = extremely characteristic). Cronbach’s α coefficient for the whole scale was 0.80; as far as the subscales are concerned, it ranged from 0.77 for Hostility to 0.85 for Physical Aggression [63 ].
Machiavellianism. To measure Machiavellianism, the Mach-IV was used. The questionnaire measures three dimensions: (1) interpersonal tactics, (2) cynical views of human nature, and (3) utilitarian morality. The instrument consists of 20 self-report items, each of them scored on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strong disagreement to 7 = strong agreement). Cronbach’s α for the whole scale was 0.73 [64 ].
Impulsivity. The IVE Questionnaire was used to measure the personality traits of impulsivity, venturesomeness, and empathy. This instrument consists of 63 items using a yes/no response format. Cronbach’s α coefficients are the following: for Impulsivity, 0.86 for women and 0.76 for men, for Venturesomeness 0.90 for women and 0.85 for men; and for Empathy, 0.77 for both genders [65 ].
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